The Ghost Dance was not just one, but two distinct spiritual movements that arose among Native American populations in the western United States during the late 19th century. These movements represented a powerful effort by Native Americans to revitalize their traditional cultures in the face of immense pressure and disruption from white American expansion. Rooted in prophecy and vision, the Ghost Dance promised a return to a world undisturbed by white influence, a restoration of ancestral lands, and a renewal of life as it once was.
These movements originated from the visions of Northern Paiute prophets in Nevada. These prophets proclaimed the coming return of deceased ancestors – the “ghosts” – who would bring about the removal of white settlers and the rejuvenation of Native American life. This revitalization, it was believed, could be hastened through specific dances and songs revealed in spiritual visions, coupled with a strict moral code that echoed certain Christian teachings, notably advocating for peace among both Native Americans and with white people. Participants in the Ghost Dance often entered trance states, experiencing visions, receiving new songs from the spirits, and seeking healing through the rituals.
The first iteration of the Ghost Dance emerged around 1869, led by the prophet Wodziwob. This movement gained traction and spread to tribes in California and Oregon between 1871 and 1873. However, this initial wave eventually faded or transformed into other religious expressions. The second, and more widely known, Ghost Dance was associated with Wovoka, also known as Jack Wilson, who was the son of Tavibo, an associate of Wodziwob. Wovoka’s teachings were shaped by various influences, including Presbyterianism from his time working on a ranch, Mormonism, and the traditions of the Indian Shaker Church.
A pivotal moment for Wovoka occurred during a solar eclipse in January 1889. He experienced a profound vision where he journeyed to heaven, spoke with God, and received a divine commission to introduce the Ghost Dance and its message of renewal. News of Wovoka and his prophecies spread rapidly. Native Americans from numerous tribes journeyed to learn from him. Wovoka displayed self-inflicted marks on his hands and feet, which reinforced the belief among his followers that he was a messianic figure, a new Christ sent to the Native American people.
Consequently, the Ghost Dance movement extended its reach across a vast territory, stretching from the Missouri River to the Canadian border, the Sierra Nevada mountains, and as far south as northern Texas. In early 1890, the Ghost Dance reached the Sioux Nation. Its arrival unfortunately coincided with growing tensions and unrest among the Sioux, culminating in the tragic events of late 1890. The Ghost Dance was mistakenly blamed as the cause of the Sioux uprising, which reached its devastating climax at the Wounded Knee Massacre in South Dakota. Here, the promised “ghost shirts,” meant to protect wearers from harm, failed in the face of military violence.
Although the intense fervor of the second Ghost Dance eventually subsided as conditions changed, its influence persisted into the 20th century in a diminished form among certain tribes. Both Ghost Dance movements played a significant role in reshaping traditional Native American shamanism. They also inadvertently paved the way for increased Christianization and, paradoxically, a degree of accommodation to white American culture, even as they initially sought to reject it. In essence, the Ghost Dance represents a complex chapter in Native American history, reflecting both spiritual resilience and the tragic consequences of cultural conflict and misunderstanding.
